Speaking in Academic Contexts
Rhetorical Functions in Academic Speaking: Arguing & discussing
In academic life, arguing and discussing is often part of a larger element of speaking. In arguing and discussing, you are expected to present two or more points of view and discuss the positive and negative aspects of each case. On the basis of your discussion, you can then choose one point of view and persuade your readers that you are correct. This means giving your opinions (positive and negative) on the work of others and your own opinions based on what you have learned. You need to evaluate arguments, weigh evidence and develop a set of standards on which to base your conclusion.
As always, all your opinions must be supported – you should produce your evidence and explain why this evidence supports your point of view. It is important to distinguish between your claim (proposition, thesis) – your point of view, what you believe;your evidence (support or grounds) – the facts, data and examples that support your point of view – and your reasons (warrant or argument) – why you believe what you do, how the evidence you have provided leads to the claim your are making. (See Toulmin, 1958).
There are two main methods of presenting an argument, and in general the one you choose will depend on exactly what the speaking task is (See Preparing: the Task and Organisation for more information).
a. The balanced view
In this case you present both sides of an argument, without necessarily committing yourself to any opinions, which should always be based on evidence, until the conclusion.
At its simplest your essay plan will be as follows:
Introduce the argument to the reader.
e.g. why it is a particularly relevant topic nowadays |
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Give reasons against the argument.
State the position, the evidence and the reasons. |
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Give reasons in favour of the argument.
State the position, the evidence and the reasons. |
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After summarising the two sides, state your own point of view, and explain why you think as you do. |
b. The persuasive talk
This second type of argumentative talk involves stating your own point of view immediately, and trying to convince the reader by reasoned argument that you are right. The form of the talk will be, in outline, as follows:
Introduce the topic briefly in general terms,
and then state your own opinion. Explain what you plan to prove in the talk. |
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Give your reasons against the argument.
Dispose briefly of the main objections to your case. Provide evidence and your reasons. |
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Give your reasons for your argument,
the arguments to support your own view, with evidence, reasons and examples. |
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Conclusion – Do not repeat your opinion again.
End your talk with something memorable e.g. a quotation or a direct question. |
Example
Read the following examples: Example 1; Example 2
Exercise
Try this exercise: Exercise 1
Language
Presenting another point of view
Some people |
maintain(s) |
that |
… |
It is the view of X |
|||
According to X |
Commenting on another point of view
Negatively
They |
is/are |
somewhat |
mistaken. |
|
X’s |
approach |
This |
is/are |
open to doubt. |
cannot be upheld. |
Serious |
doubts |
can |
be raised against this. |
I disagree with X when he |
writes |
that … |
However, it is clear that …
One of the main arguments |
against |
X is that |
… |
One disadvantage of |
X |
is |
… |
One objection to this argument |
Plus negative words: wrong, mistaken, false, erroneous, misplaced, inaccurate, incorrect, debatable, untrue, not the case.
Positively
I agree with X when he |
writes |
that … |
X is certainly correct |
when he |
says |
that … |
in saying |
One advantage of |
X |
is |
… |
Plus positive words: correct, right, accurate.
Presenting own point of view
There are many reasons why …
It is |
important |
to |
remember |
that |
… |
The first thing |
we have |
to consider |
is |
… |
The first thing to be considered is |
It is a fact |
that |
… |
The first reason why … is …
First of all, …
The second reason why … is …
Secondly, …
The most important …
In addition, …
Furthermore, …
What is more, …
Besides, …
Another reason is …
A further point is …
Qualification
In all cases points of view may be qualified and generalisations may be made. You may also have different degrees of certainty about your claims.