Grammar in EAP

Clauses and Simple Sentences

Clauses: Introduction

A clause is the main unit of grammatical structure. It usually consist of a subject and a predicate. It consists of one or more groups. A typical structure of a clause is SPCA – subject,  predicator,  complement,  adjunct.  Subject is typically realised by a nominal group.  Predicator is typically realised by a verbal group.  Complement is typically realised by a nominal group. Adjunct is typically realised by an adverbial group.

There are two main types of clause: independent clause and dependent clauses. An independent clause is a clause that can stand alone, wheres an dependent clause cannot. A dependent clause can be either finite or non-finite.

A finite clause includes a finite verb – a verb that is marked for either tense or modality.If the verb in the clause is not marked for either tense or modality, then the clause is non-finite.

For example:

“The Liberals were split three ways by the 1931 election”. (Independent)

“because they were losing their sense of identity”. (Dependent – finite)

“having lost their sense of identity”. (Dependent – non-finite)

Elements of the finite clause

A clause – or a simple sentence – consists of two elements.

Subject	Predicate
The participants	were chosen.
Jones	investigated the issue secretly in the early 1950s.

Exercises

Exercise: Clauses 1

Exercise: Clauses 1a

All finite clauses require a subject and a predicate. The predicate consits of several other elements, some are essential and some are optional. The description of the structure of the clause uses four main elements: subject (S), predicator (P), complement (C) and adjunct (A).

For example:

S	P	C	A	A
Jones	investigated	the issue	secretly	in the early 1950s.

In this case, the subject, predicate & complement are essential, but the adjuncts are optional. What is essential and what is optional depends on the predicator.

Elements of structure

Clauses consist of various combinations of elements, or elements of structure.

S	P	C
He	reported	the findings.

S	P	C	C	A	A
Jones	reported	his findings	to the conference	last year	though.

Each element is a constituent of the clause and is related to the other elements; they co-operate with each other, performing different functions in the clause.

Exercise

Exercise: Clauses 2

Subject

Subject is a functional element of clause structure.  Subject is typically realised by a nominal group, but may not be. For example, in the sentence: “Having to rewrite his dissertation was time-consuming,” the subject is an -ing clause.

Predicator

Predicator is a functional element of clause structure.  Predicator is typically realised by a verbal group.

Complements

There are various kinds of complement: Direct Object (Od), Indirect Object (Oi), Prepositional Object (Op), Subject Complement (Cs), Object Complement (Co), Prepositional Complement (Cp).

She published the findings.	SPOd
She sent me the report.	SPOiOd
The results depended on the method.	SPOp
The results sounded plausible.	SPCs
They found the results plausible.	SPOdCo
She published the findings in the journal.	SPOdCp

Objects and other Complements

We can distinguish between Direct Object (Od), Indirect Object (Oi) and Prepositional Object (Op).

Direct Object	(Od)	The researcher published the report,.
Indirect Object	(Oi)	The researcher sent the editor the report.
Prepositional Object	(Op)	The researcher can rely on the editor.

Complements which are not Objects are classified as follows:

Complement of the Subject	Cs	Jones is a researcher.
Complement of the Object	Co	She found the research useful.

Exercise

Exercise: Complements

Basic structures of the clause

Clausal elements or functions enter into varied relationships with each other to express different types of proposition concerning different  situations. These are exemplified as follows:

SP	The researcher / resigned.
	The research / failed.
	The principal researcher’s main aim to understand falling overseas sales / has failed.
SPOd	Jones / investigated / sales.
	The researcher / studied / the reasons for the decrease in overseas sales.
SPOiOd	The researchers / have sent / the editor / the paper.
	The Ministry of Education / awarded / the researchers / a grant.
SPOp	You / can rely / on the results.
	The researchers / are looking / into the matter.
SPCs	My brother / has become / a professor.
	Your exam results / were / better than mine
SPOdCo	They / appointed / him / professor.
	The committee / do not consider / Jones / much of a researcher.

The SPCs structure is very common in academic texts, with two complex nominal groups joined with a linking verb such as “is“. However, in such cases the group structure is much more complicated.

For example:

Besides historiography and mathematical astronomy, another great innovation by the Greeks of the fifth century BC was the art of tragedy.

Exercise: SPCs Clause Structure

Adjuncts

Adjunct is a functional element of clause structure. A typical structure of a clause is SPCA – subject, predicator, complement, adjunct. Adjunct is typically realised by an adverbial group. Adjuncts provide optional information and types of adjunct include circumstantial adjunct, stance adjunct, and connective adjunct.

Adjuncts are optional and there is no fixed number of them in a clause. The following clause, for example, has four adjuncts:

A	S	P	A	A	A
Actually,	he	works	at home	very rarely	these days.

They are also very flexible in their position.

S	A	P	A	A	A
He	very rarely	works	at home	these days,	actually.

A	S	A	A	P	A
These days	he	very rarely	actually	works	at home.

Circumstantial Adjuncts

One of the types of adjunct identified by Halliday (1985). Circumstantial adjuncts provide experiential details about the action or state described by the verb (Biber, 2006; Biber et al, 1999; Bloor & Bloor, 2004; Downing & Locke, 2006; Eggins, 2004; Thompson, 2004).

Circumstantial adjuncts are realised by a wide variety of units:

He wrote to me yesterday. Adverb

He wrote to me too late. Adverbial Group

He wrote to me from the conference. Prepositional Phrase

He wrote to me yesterday morning.  Nominal Group

He wrote to me while he was at the conference. Finite Clause>

He wrote to tell me the bad news. Non-finite to-infinitive Clause

He wrote to me, using his new computer. Non-finite -ing Clause.

He wrote to me, confused by my previous response. Non-finite -en Clause.

Happy to see me again, he wrote to me. Verbless Clause

Stance/Mood Adjuncts

Stance adjuncts evaluate the speaker’s evaluation, attitude or comment on the content of the message (Biber, 2006; Biber et al, 1999; Bloor & Bloor, 2004; Dowling & Locke, 2006, Eggins, 2004; Thompson, 2004). According to Biber et al (1999, pp 853-875),  what they call “stance  adverbials” are relatively common in academic prose, single adverbs being the most common followed by finite clauses.

There are three main types: epistemic, evidential and evaluative.

• • Epistemic stance adjuncts express the speaker’s opinion regarding the validity of the content.

    This obviously reintroduces the scepticism which Descartes had hoped to avoid.

  • Evidential stance adjuncts signal the source of knowledge or information.

    According to the science of optics, light travelling from objects enters the eyes at differing angles according to distance.

  • Evaluative stance adjuncts reflect the subjective or objective attitude of  the speaker towards the content or the addressee.

    The mechanisms underlying releases of both methane and nitrous oxide are poorly known, unfortunately.

Stance adjuncts can be realised by:

• • Adverbs: surely, obviously, frankly, honestly, confidentially, hopefully, probably
  • Prepositional Phrases: in fact, in reality, in our opinion, at a rough guess, by any chance, according to our calculations, of course, on present evidence
  • Non-finite Clauses: to be honest, to tell the truth, strictly speaking
  • Finite Clauses: if I may be frank with you ..; don’t take this personally, but …; one would expect

Connective/Conjunctive Adjuncts

One of the types of adjunct identified by Halliday (1985). Connective adjuncts explain how the semantic connections in an utterance are made (Biber, 2006; Biber et al, 1999; Bloor & Bloor, 2004; Downing & Locke, 2006; Eggins, 2004; Thompson, 2004). According to Biber et al (1999, pp 884-890),  what they call “linking adverbials” are common in academic prose, single adverbs being the most common followed by prepositional phrases.

Connective adjuncts can occur:

• • Between groups – “Lord Shaftesbury was a persuasive speaker and furthermore a great pioneer of social reform”.
  • Between clauses – “I myself hate the idea and hope it won’t come to pass; nevertheless, a National Government might come about as a result of the financial crisis”.
  • Between sentences – “Less sleep is needed by the elderly, but the habits of a lifetime might not be changed automatically, with the result that individuals retire earlier than necessary and too much time is spent in bed. Consequently, sleep might become disturbed, particularly when, in addition, kidney function does not decrease at night as much as it once did”
  • Between paragraphs – “First of all, one of the most striking aspects of the notes is the interest Marx shows in detailed ethnographic description”.

Semantically, many different types of connection can be expressed. Four main types are:

• • Additive – besides, in the same way, what’s more, moreover, plus, as well, also
  • Contrastive – instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, nevertheless, rather, yet
  • Causal – for, because, so, therefore, then, in that case, consequently, thus 
  • Temporal – first, then, next, after that, finally, at once

Connective adjuncts can be realised by:

• • Adverbs: e.g.  nevertheless, moreover, first, therefore, next, now namely, accordingly, consequently, alternatively
  • Prepositional Phrases: e.g.  in other words, by the way, on top of that
  • Adjectival Groups: e.g. last of all, better still
  • Adverbial Groups: e.g. more accurately
  • Finite Clauses: e.g. that is to say, what is more
  • Non-finite Clauses: e.g. to sum up, to cap it all

Connective adjuncts in written and spoken English (Carter & McCarthy, 2006):

Some connective adjuncts are particularly associated with written or spoken English. For example, “on the contrary” is used very rarely in informal conversation. It is more common in written English and usually occurs in front (or much less frequently in mid) position:

The King was, in a sense, the guardian of this agreement, and it might have been expected that he would remind the party leaders of it. On the contrary, he took the view that a continuation of the National Government was in the best interests of the country.

“What’s more”, however, is more common in informal speech:

It’s not enough to feed the family. What’s more, my husband is ill, and I can’t afford to buy his medicine.

Some connective adjuncts more common in written than in spoken English: accordingly, furthermore; therefore, as a consequence, in the event, duly, moreover.

Connective adjuncts more common in spoken than in written English: as I say, because of that, in the end, what’s more.

Exercise

Exercise: Adjuncts

Examples of Clause Elements

Subject (S)	Tertullian enjoyed paradox.	SPCsA
Predicator (P)	The grant ended this week.	SPA
Direct Object (Od)	Jones has published a new book.	SPOd
Indirect Object (Oi)	They sent their colleagues copies of the research.	SPOiOd
Prepositional Object (Op)	You must allow for price increases.	SPOprep
Subject Complement (Cs)	He is powerless to make any changes.	SPCs
Object Complement (Co)	We consider the research important.	SPOdCo
Adjunct (A)	The paper was published on Tuesday.	SPOdA

Realisation of Clause Elements

These elements of clause structure are realised by various word, groups or clauses. In English there is no one-to-one correspondence between class of unit (noun, verb, nominal group, finite clause, …) and syntactic function (subject, predicator,  complement, adjunct). See: Grammar: Realisation of Clause Elements

Combining Clauses

Clauses can also combine to form complex or compound sentences.

Combining Clauses: Grammar: Clause Complexes