2.5
These all stem from some about people. To a large extent unproven, they tend to represent the mood or climate of opinion at that time. Schein has classified them as follows, and it is interesting to note that the categories follow each other in a sort of historical , starting from the time of the industrial .

The rational- . We are by needs. We are essentially animals to be , and controlled by the organisation. Our feelings are essentially ; organisations must be so organised that these feelings and traits are controlled (McGregor’s X ). But, fortunately, not all of us are like this. There are those who are self-, self-controlling and in charge of their emotions. This group must responsibility for the management of the others.

The social . We are essentially social animals and gain our basic sense of from relationships with others. As a result of the necessary of work much of the meaning has gone out of work itself and must be in the social relationships of the job. Management is only effective to the extent that it can mobilise and on these social relationships. of leadership and group behaviour are therefore of great importance.

The self-actualising . We are self- and self-controlled. We to be on the and are of being so. controls and pressures are likely to be seen as reducing our autonomy and therefore will our . Given a chance, people will their own with those of the organisation.

The . Schein comes down in favour of what he calls ‘ man’ . People are . We have many motives which have at any one time a , but the particular may change from time to time and situation to situation. We do not necessarily have to find fulfilment of all our needs in any one situation. We can to a variety of managerial . Whether we will or not, will depend upon our view of their to the situation and to our needs.

The . This is a suggested by Levinson, following Jacques and Zaleznik. A person is a , unfolding, organism who passes through and psychological stages of development. We an ego ideal towards which we strive. The most powerful force in us, over and above such basic drives as hunger, , aggression, is the need to bring ourselves closer to our ideal. The greater the gap between our of ourselves in reality and our ego ideal the more angry we are with ourselves and the more guilt we feel. Work is part of our , our ego ideal, and opportunities must be provided for us to work towards our ego ideal in work if we are to be ‘’.

2.6
The kind of that we subscribe to will colour all our views about management and people in organisations. Satisfaction and , that people are rational-, will lead to a bargaining , to preoccupation with the extrinsic conditions of work, money and fringe . Believers in , in self-actualising or , will be more concerned with opportunities for to develop and realise their talents, with providing the right climate for work and the right type of work.

At this point it might be helpful to the reader to pause and reflect upon his or her about people and the of . For we are now going to complicate the whole , to pour more into the mix than are even by Schein’s or Levinson’s one. Working from a basic model of a person’s decision-making we shall piecemeal towards a better and fuller understanding of how people answer the three questions at the beginning of this . The resulting picture will be complicated and intricate. This is only in line with the intricacies of reality, but for most operational purposes reality is too . We are reduced to thinking in stereotypes or over-simplifications in order to get anything done and to avoid the paralysis of . This of reduction is, however, a better base for action if we understand the and if we confront our other prejudices, and stereotypes along the way.

(Understanding organisations by Charles Handy)